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Joseph S. Fruton
Joseph Stewart Fruton (May 14, 1912 – July 29, 2007), born Joseph Fruchtgarten, was a Jewish Polish-American biochemist and historian of science. His most significant scientific work involved synthetic peptides and their interactions with proteases; with his wife Sofia Simmonds he also published an influential textbook, ''General Biochemistry'' (1953; 1958).〔(Joseph S. Fruton (1912– ), Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society, 2006. Accessed April 17, 2008〕 From 1970 until his death, Fruton worked extensively on the history of science, particularly the history of biochemistry and molecular biology.
==Childhood and education==
Joseph Fruchtgarten was born in Częstochowa, Poland; his father Shama Nuta (Charles) Fruchtgarten was a grain merchant, and his mother Ella (Aisenstadt) Fruchtgarten was a French teacher. Like many other Polish Jews, the Fruchtgartens immigrated to the United States shortly before the outbreak of World War I. They lived in New York City from 1913 to 1917, and in April 1917 they moved to Minsk (then occupied by the Red Army in the midst of the Russian Civil War).〔Fruton, ''Eighty Years'', pp. 8–12〕 Between 1917 and 1923, Fruchtgarten attended school intermittently, moving from Minsk to Siedlce to Warsaw to Berlin, and learning French, German and Latin (in addition to Polish and English). In 1923, the Fruchtgartens returned to New York and changed their name to ''Fruton'' to avoid being targets of anti-Semitism. Joseph Fruton followed his father in rejecting religion, but learned early on "not to advertise either () Jewishness or () atheism."〔Fruton, ''Eighty Years'', pp. 12–15; quotation from p. 15〕
After a few months at De Witt Clinton High School, Fruton joined the first class of students at James Madison High School. He graduated ''summa cum laude'' in 1927, excelling particularly in chemistry. He applied to Columbia University, and after an initial rejection—possibly because he was only 15 at the time, possibly because the school had already admitted the quota of New York Jews—his mother convinced an admissions official to reverse the decision. Inspired by the character Max Gottlieb from the Sinclair Lewis novel Arrowsmith, Fruton planned his Columbia education around becoming a scientist. The lectures and lab-work of organic chemist John M. Nelson turned Fruton on to biochemistry. He received his degree in chemistry in 1931, and entered graduate school in the Department of Biological Chemistry in the Columbia College of Physicians and Surgeons, working under Hans Thacher Clarke.〔Fruton, ''Eighty Years'', pp. 16–23〕 Fruton's PhD work focused on "the lability of cystine in alkali", although he developed a broad interest in the range of biochemistry-related research being pursued at the College of Physicians and Surgeons.〔Fruton, ''Eighty Years'', pp. 23–32; quotation from p. 27〕
During graduate school Fruton also became active politically, opposing fascism, militarism and anti-Semitism. In 1933 he met Sophia "Topsy" Simmonds, whom he married in 1936. Upon completing his PhD in May 1934, Fruton became a research assistant to Max Bergmann at the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research.〔Fruton, ''Eighty Years'', pp. 26, 32, 38〕
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